C0-contributors – Hua Chen and Shelby Mueller

What is Power? Power can be defined as:
“Control or authority over others; dominion, rule; government, command, sway.”
“Capacity to direct or influence the behavior of others; personal or social influence.”
“Physical or mental strength; might; vigor, energy; effectiveness.”
(Oxford English Dictionary, 2006, cited in Fawcett & Zhang, 2021, p 93)

Noteworthy is that power itself may be neither inherently positive nor negative but instead is shaped by how individuals enact it. From this perspective, the ethical and purposeful intentions of those who hold power may be as important as the form of power that is conferred. In this blog, we have labeled some perspectives of power as negative and some as positive based on our admitted bias toward perspectives of power that foster independence and freedom from control by a person or collectively by a group of people. Furthermore, according to Torres (1981), “Power beings with the individual and evolves as an influence in the relationship between people” (p. 8).

Perspectives of Power
A major issue is what perspective of power is operationalized by persons to whom power is conferred. A related issue is what is the criterion used to determine who is the most powerful person in an organization or a country. Another issue is what criterion is used to determine what country is regarded as the most powerful country. We have been thinking about these issues for a long time and even more so during the current United States (US) federal government administration and the policies put forth by the legislative, executive, judicial branches of the US federal government. Consequently, we decided that now is an appropriate time to review what is in the literature about perspectives of power.

JF: I first turned to a paper a PhD nursing learner and I co-authored a few years ago (Fawcett & Zhang, 2021). Our review of literature revealed that what I regard as negative perspectives of power include Power Over, Power As Control, and Power As Hierarchical. In contrast, what I regard as positive perspectives include Power To, Power As Cooperation, Peace As Power, and Power As Freedom To Choose. Another perspective of power is Power as Knowledge, which can be interpreted as either positive or negative.

Power Over Versus Power To
Imogene King (1981) defined power as “the process whereby one or more persons influence other persons in a situation. Power defines a situation in a way that people will accept what is being done while they may not agree with it” (p. 127). This definition can be interpreted as a Power Over perspective. Chinn (2018) noted that Power-Over encompasses “expediency, command, force, hierarchy, [and] prescription.”

In contrast, Hawks (1991), who used King’s (1981) conceptual system to guide her concept analysis, reported the results of the analysis as power being defined as “the actual or potential ability or capacity to achieve objectives through an interpersonal process in which the goals and means to achieve those goals are mutually established and worked toward” (p. 754). Her definition is consistent with a Power To perspective.

Power as Cooperation
Power as Cooperation can be regarded as a positive perspective of power. This perspective is defined as a dynamic process between two or more people that leads to a positive outcome. Power as cooperation is evident in local, national, and international policies that are formulated by a consensus of persons and/or members of the organizations concerned with the policy topic. This perspective also could be interpreted as negative if the policies are put forth by one or more persons or organizations committed to taking control of others, that is, a Power Over perspective.

Hierarchical Power Versus Power as Knowledge
Hierarchical Power is a negative perspective focused on one person taking power from another person or persons to control them. In contrast, the positive perspective of power as knowledge refers to having power through knowledge. For example, Polifroni’s (2010) Theory of Clinical Power focuses on nursologists’ right to knowledge and their use of that knowledge to care for those we refer to as patients. Power As Knowledge also has the potential to be a negative perspective if the knowledge is misleading or false and, therefore, leads to control of others.

Peace as Power Versus Power-Over
Chinn (2013; Chinn & Falk-Rafael, 2014) articulated a positive Peace as Power perspective. The acronym, Peace, stands for Praxis, Empowerment, Awareness, Cooperation, and Evolvement. The major concepts of the theory of Peace as Power are Power, Peace, Empowerment, Awareness, Cooperation, Evolvement, and Group Process (Chinn, 2018). The theory of Peace As Power places emphasis on consensus for the various choices people have. More specifically, Chinn (2018) explained, “This theory provides a framework for individuals and groups to shape their actions and interactions to promote health and well being for the group and for each individual, using processes based on values of cooperation [i.e., Power as Cooperation] and inclusion of all points of view in making decisions and in addressing conflicts. Based on the processes described, individuals and groups can make thoughtful choices about the ways they work together to promote healthy, growthful interactions and avoid harmful, damaging interactions. It is a way “to shape and guide mindful practice.” (Chinn, 2018). Clearly, Peace as Power is regarded as a positive perspective of power and is the antithesis of the Power-Over negative perspective. Of note, some people might regard the consensus that is central to Peace as Power as an excuse for decisions they consider good, whereas it is obvious to others that the decisions are antithetical to the promotion of health and well being.

Power As Freedom Versus Power As Control
Barrett’s (2010) Theory of Power as Knowing Participation in Change, which is based on Rogers’ Science of Unitary Human Beings, is a positive, spiritual perspective of power. In contrast, Power as Control is a materialistic perspective.

The concepts associated with Power-As-Freedom are Awareness, Choices, Freedom to Act Intentionally, and Involvement in Creating Change. Barrett (2010) explained that the theory focuses on Power-As-Freedom, which comes from and is associated with participating knowingly in life changes. Power-As-Freedom contrasts sharply with the negative, materialistic perspective of Power as Control.

Who Confers Power, and to Whom or What is Power Conferred?
In general, it is thought that power is conferred by being appointed or elected to a position by colleagues. Power is conferred by being elected to a governmental position by voters. Power is conferred by taking power away from someone else, which happens when a coup d’état occurs, that is, when, for example, the military members of a country displace the current leader of that country.

JF: A December 2025 search of the internet using the search terms “Why is the United States considered the most powerful country in the world?” and “Why is the President of the United States considered the most powerful person in the world?” yielded various sources. I selected two that I regard as particularly informative.

In 2022, Chukwuemeka identified eight reasons why the US is regarded as THE world power. He explained, “A superpower is a nation having the capacity to exert its hegemonic influence and authority everywhere in the world. When referring to an extremely powerful country, especially one that can affect how other nations behave, this phrase works well. Superpowers occupy dominating positions on the international scene and are distinguished by their capacity to exercise influence, project power, or assist on a global scale. Other nations actively monitor the economic, military, and foreign policies of superpowers since they have a significant influence on the rest of the globe. The eight reasons, based on past and present situations and events, why the US is regarded as a superpower are:

• Emergent Power.
• By Choosing To Become A European-style Imperial Power
• The Second World War
• Being Able To bring Europe Together Under An American-led NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization]
• Ingenuity
• Culture/Living
• Spending More Money On The military Than Some Nations Put Together
• Currency

More recently, Okewoye (2025) identified 10 reasons that could be considered criteria for how to determine the most powerful country in the world (i.e., Planet Earth). These reasons are:

• Political Power: A Foundation of Stability and Leadership
• Economic Power: The Engine of Growth
• Military Power: Unmatched Strength
• Technological Power: Innovation at the Forefront
• Media and Cultural Influence: Shaping Global Narratives
• Industrial Power: A Legacy of Production
• Education and Research: Attracting Global Talent
• Global Influence and Alliances: Extending Reach
• Historical Timing: Seizing Opportunities
• Cultural and Ideological Appeal: The American Dream

Okewoye (2025) noted that although many people and other nations regard the US as the most powerful nation, challenges exist, stating, “Despite its dominance, the U.S. faces significant challenges, including rising inequality, political polarization, and competition from emerging powers like China. Questions about the sustainability of its global leadership persist. However, America’s ability to adapt, innovate, and reinvent itself has allowed it to maintain its position at the forefront of global power.” Given what has been happening during the current federal administration, other nations are seriously questioning whether the US remains the most powerful nation.

Just as the US has been considered the most powerful nation, the president of the US often is considered the most powerful person on earth. Emamzadeh (2021), drawing from French and Raven (1986) identified six bases of social power, “defined as having the ability or potential to exert social influence” or “an individual’s relative capacity to modify others’ states by providing or withholding resources or administering punishments” (Kelter et al.(2023), as cited in Emanzadeh, 2021).

Although Emamzadeh (2021) discussed these power bases within the context of the current U.S. presidency, we have eliminated that context to present the power bases context-free, listed here:

• Reward power.
• Coercive power
• Legitimate power
• Expert power
• Referent power
• Informational power

In concluding his paper, Emamzadeh (2021) stated, “Knowing about the bases of power can help us overcome powerlessness and become more empowered. We need to remember that social power exists in relation to others. Even the most powerful would lose much of their power without, say, folks buying their products, attending their speeches, reading their writings, believing their assertions, watching their shows, relying on their promises, and obeying their orders.”

Conclusion
Our discussion of power as dynamic and relational extends beyond the individual level to interactions among nations. From a historical viewpoint, power appears to shift across time and space, suggesting that dominance or hegemony is rarely permanent. This raises a critical question: Might positive perspectives of power, such as Peace as Power or Power as Knowing Participation in Change, offer more sustainable alternatives to hierarchical or control-based forms of power, particularly in times of social or political transition?

We are sharing what we learned about power with nursology.net readers with the hope and, if we may be so bold, that the expectation that all of us will embrace Peace and Power and Power as Knowing Participation in Change as we navigate the policies and politics of contemporary life as nursologists and as citizens of our respective nations. We are convinced that we must advocate for these approaches to power when we confer power on others and when some of us find ourselves in positions and situations that are considered powerful.

As we wrote this blog, we realized that we had to think critically about how power is understood, conferred, and enacted in both professional and civic life.

We believe this blog will encourage readers to reflect on their own assumptions about power and to consider more cooperative and humanistic approaches as nursologists and as members of society. We invite you to begin that reflection now:

• About your practice: Think of a recent clinical situation where you felt powerless. What if your power didn’t require positional authority but came from how you chose to participate in that moment?
• About nursology culture: What would your unit, your organization, your nursing school look like if they operated from Peace as Power rather than traditional hierarchies?
• About civic life: How do you respond when legitimate power (laws, policies, leaders) fails to protect the vulnerable? Do you retreat into powerlessness, seek dominance, or is there another path?

JF: As we end this blog, I am reminded of a time many years ago when I was a candidate for a committee. I did not win election to the committee. When I asked a colleague why I was not among the candidates who were elected to the committee, she told me that I was perceived by other colleagues as “too powerful.” I was amazed, as I did not regard myself as having any power as a very junior faculty member. The lesson I learned is that each of us must understand how we are perceived by others.

References

Barrett, E. (2010). Power as knowing participation in change: What’s new and what’s next. Nursing Science Quarterly, 23(1), 47-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894318409353797

Chinn, P. L. (2013). Peace & power: New directions for building community (8th ed.). Jones and Bartlett Learning.

Chinn, P. L. (2018, August 23). Peace & Power. nursology.net. https://nursology.net/nurse-theories/peace-power/

Chinn, P. L., & Falk-Rafael, A. R. (2014). Peace and power: A theory of emancipatory group process. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 47(1), 62–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnu.12101

Chukwuemeka, E, S. (2022). Why USA Is The World Power: 8 Reasons. BScholoarly. https://bscholarly.com/why-usa-is-the-world-power/

Emamzadeh, A. (2021, January 9). The 6 Bases of Power: How Powerful Is Trump? Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/finding-new-home/202101/the-6-bases-power-how-powerful-is-trump

Fawcett, J. (2018, September 13). Theory of Power as Knowing Participation in Change. nursology.net. https://nursology.net/nurse-theories/theory-of-power-as-knowing-participation-in-change/

Fawcett, J., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Thoughts about power. Nursing Science Quarterly, 34(1), 93-95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894318420965218

French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. (1986). The bases of social power. In Kellerman, B. (Ed.). Political leadership: A source book (pp 300-318). University of Pittsburgh Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.12381759; https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.12381759

Hawks, J. H. (1991). Power: A concept analysis. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 16, 754–762. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.1991.tb01734.x

King, I. M. (1981). A theory for nursing: Systems, concepts, process. Wiley. [Reissued 1990. Delmar.]

Okewoye, S. (2025, February 3). The Rise of America: How the U.S. Became the World’s Dominant Superpower. Diplomatic Watch. https://diplomaticwatch.com/the-rise-of-america-how-the-u-s-became-the-worlds-dominant-superpower/::

Polifroni, E. C. (2010). Power, right and truth: Foucault’s triangle as a model for clinical power. Nursing Science Quarterly, 23(1), 8-12. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894318409353811

Torres, G. (1981). The nursing education administrator. Advances in Nursing Science, 3(3), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1097/00012272-198104000-00002

About the Co-contributors

Hua Chen is a Nursing Science PhD doctoral candidate at UMass Boston studying aging, posture, and population health.

Shelby Mueller is a Nursing Science PhD student at UMass Boston with a decade of experience as a military nurse. Her research interests center on healthcare access, delivery, and health policy in military populations. She is passionate about bridging clinical practice and policy to create meaningful change in how we care for those who serve.”